What got me working on ' Sahyadris to Hindukush '

Well ,  so why did I choose to write on such a topic . 


I have always liked to trek , hike and roam in the Sahyadri mountains of my native state – Maharashtra . These hills , full of forts and steeped in history , sparked my interest in the subject. I like to read about history , about wars and battles fought long back as a leisure activity . Out of this hobby was born a wish to write a book myself ! 
Actually , I started off wanting to write a story 

based on an ‘alternate history’ . A ‘what if’ scenario centered around ‘what if the third battle of Panipat had not happened ?’ . What would history be like if the Marathas had continued their northward push ? . As I researched the subject however , I found that there is much to be discovered in the factual history itself ! . That the real story of the rise of the Maratha empire is a fantastic , unique and largely unknown story in itself !
There is a term in Marathi , used to denote achievement , which translates as ‘ carried flags beyond Attock’ . What connection does the language and the people have with a town on the Indus , deep inside present day Pakistan ? What relation does a city have which rhymes with Attock , but is on the Mahanadi – Cuttack ? This book has come out of an endeavour to find answers to these questions . It has been a journey of over two years ,which has taken me back in time to the 1740’s and 1750’s , when our long dead historical personalities were alive and the Shaniwarwada , forts at Satara and Panhala and the Red Fort at Delhi were living , breathing places .
When reading about the Marathas in mid 18th century , we are bound to come across Ahmed Shah Abdali .Who indeed was this person ? The answer has been another beautiful journey , possible only on the world wide web ! I have made a virtual tour deep inside Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Afghanistan . From the chilly autumn of Kandahar and through the fabled Khyber Pass to the Qissa Qahani bazaar of Peshawar , I came across , and was generously helped by Pashtuns from these distant and mysterious places , which we have heard about only in stories !
This then , is a story of victory . Written by an avid reader , trekker and history buff .  


' Sahyadris to Hindukush ' is a historical novel . 

MARATHA ARTILLERY

Zahir ud din  Babur arrived from faraway Samarkand in 1526 and annihilated Ibrahim Lodi's army at Panipat . Lodi was no pushover . What made the difference ? Babur's guns , the likes of which the Indian sub continent had never seen . Thanks to superior artillery , a person known more for his skills as a poet had managed to conquer Delhi and start the Mughal dynasty ! . The event should have been breaking news all over the land , with kings and princes falling over themselves trying to match or better the Mughal artillery and in the process create a name for Indian artillery as a whole . Sadly , nothing of that sort happened . Indian rulers always ended up being several steps behind top of the line artillery . Even today , we are dependent on the Swedish Bofors guns and there is talk of American Howitzers and Tomahawks being inducted . The year 2026 will mark 500 glorious years of India not being up to speed in this crucial arm of any army . Which is sad , considering the pivotal role artillery has played in many a battle.

         Anyways , that is the larger picture . My topic is a short talk on Maratha artillery .

Development of Maratha artillery could be said to have been started with Shivaji . Although involved mainly in guerilla warfare , Chhatrapati Shivaji understood the potency and importance of a strong artillery division . Real life experiences like the siege of Panhala , where the long - range English guns made a huge difference , shaped his opinion . Constrained as he was by a hundred things , he still went out of his way to ensure that his soldiers had access to the best weapons . Be they cannons or cannon balls . Much of this was procured from the Portuguese who had set up factories in Goa , Vasai , Daman and Diu .
     

Post Shivaji , with the Maratha embroiled in the war of independence with the Mughals , which was a 27 year long guerilla war , artillery and large guns were once more on the back burner . The Marathas neither had the time , nor the money and neither the desire to set up an effective artillery arm during those trying times.  
         Under Bajirao I , the Marathas finally began foraying into the north . Bajirao's methods though , out more emphasis on rapid movement of his cavalry , rendering the enemy's artillery rather ineffective . The Battle of Palkhed is a prime example of this . All this was fine as long as the Marathas were in someone  else's territory and harassing and evading their way to victory . Bajirao managed to reach Delhi in 3 days from Pune , a measure of his cavalry's capability . In comparison , the Mughal armies in their prime under Akbar and Aurangzeb could manage only around 5 - 8 kos ( 1 kos = 2.25 km ) a day , encumbered as they were with heavy , slow moving guns .
     But , as the Marathas went from being invaders to rulers , requiring to hold territory in the vast expanses of the north , artillery became all the more important . The old notions about soldiers considering fighting on foot below themselves could not continue . Bajirao established a factory for producing cannons in the 1730s .

Even so , the Marathas lacked the expertise to build and operate the latest guns , primarily because they were a product of the industrial revolution in Europe , which the Marathas had no clue about . Still , considering that they had come into contact with British guns as early as 1660s , it is surprising that they hadn't cracked the code to good artillery even 150 years later ! . Says a lot about both , the Europeans and Marathas . As a result , Maratha artillery divisions continued to be manned by Europeans and if not Europeans , then Arabs , Habshis etc . A Panse or Patwardhan were rare , and no match for a DeBussy or DeBoigne .
        Apart from a few sporadic incidents , Marathas continued to be a cavalry - centric army right upto the late 1750s . One change happened though . The superiority of the French artillery , which they saw in action at various places , made them induct Frecnh trained artillery men like Muzzafar Khan . And after him , the famous Ibrahim Khan Gardi . Both DeBussy trained men . Udgir in 1760 marked the first time that the Marathas put up a co ordinated cavalry - artillery attack on the Nizam . The genius of Balwantrao Mehendale ensured a crushing defeat for the Nizam . Sadly , the Marathas never found the time to perfect this new method . Which is why the Panipat disaster is often blamed on the lack of artillery - cavalry co ordination .

     
Post Panipat , Madhavrao I went about trying to rebuild the Maratha confederacy . He paid special attention to guns and cannons . A factory for making cannon balls was established at Ambegaon near Otur ( Junnar ) as a also a workshop for producing cannons was set up at Pune in 1769 . The cannon balls were 7 to 20 sher ( 1 sher = 1.25 kg ) . The cannons had colourful names like  Jaywanti , Jwalabhavani etc . They played a part in Madhavrao's victory over Haider Ali at Seringapatnam .
   But , even then , Maratha artillery still lacked both in quality and quantity . Most of the cannon balls were wrought , not cast . The sizes of neither the cannon balls nor the bore of the cannon was standardised . One can one imagine the time and effort spent in creating such custom made artillery . Cannon balls had to be hammered into shape before being put into a cannon . This was damaging to the cannon too , as smooth bore cannons lasted longer . Many cannons burst while being created  , killing the workers around them . As a result , even Madhavrao was forced to buy cannon balls from the British . The Brits , shrewd as they were , never supplied the requisite quantity ! Infact they only supplied only 10 % of what was asked for . By this time , their star was on the ascent in India , and they did not want to give their  ' enemy ' the sinews of war .
Another issue was the carriages used . They were large , cumbersome and many times overloaded with other things . As a result , a Maratha gun took more than half an hour to get ready for battle ! . Many carriages broke en route . And they never got around to using horses . Maratha guns were always drawn by a huge number of bullocks .
       The death of  Peshwa Madhavrao in 1772 was a huge blow to the Marathas . Among other things , it greatly affected the artillery division too .
      To the north however , Mahadji Scindia had started making rapid strides in this direction . A certain Count Benoit  DeBoigne was put in charge of the artillery . A division of 10,000 musketeers was also raised . From the late 1780s , Maratha artillery started having a telling effect on the neighbouring Rajput states . Jaipur  , Alwar , Chittor , Ajmer  etc quickly toppled . The nominal hold which Nanasaheb had over the Rajputs was further cemented by Mahadji . The Battle of Patan is a telling example of this . Sadly , Mahadji died in 1794 , leaving his job unfinished . Five years later , Nana Phadnavis passed away at Pune , bringing to an end the Nana - Mahadji combine . Sawai Madhavrao too died in the meantime . Their successors , Daulatrao Scindia and Bajirao - II were not a patch on these stalwarts . The British , with their far superior artillery , annexed whatever was left of the Marathas in 1818 .

CH 1 - A NEW PESHWA . ( excerpt )

The  mountains  rose  out  of  the  surrounding  plains,  strong,  tall   massifs. The  table-top  land bore  a  straw  coloured  look, save for  the  green  shrubbery at the base of the hills. The merciless summers had taken their toll, rendering the landscape nearly barren and bare. Grass which had grown plentiful on the steep slopes in the monsoons and winters, now succumbed to the harsh sun. The  sturdy grass rose up the slopes of the hills, ending in vertical walls of stone, too steep for even the grass and soil to conquer. Here, the black  basalt  heart  of the mountains stood out, almost like a natural, impregnable wall. The sun beat down on the hills, a bright yellow ball of light in a cloudless and endless blue sky.  An eagle screeched overhead, far above, no doubt looking for its nest in one of the hills.
Chhatrapati Shahu rested his hand against one of the many crenellations of the fort wall. The fort of Satara was Shahu’s home and capital of the Hindavi Swarajya. Shahu thoughtfully peered long and hard into the distance. He could see the hill of Yeoteshwar. The swallow tailed saffron standard fluttered proudly over it, as it did on many others, throughout the land.
The Chhatrapati though, was in a pensive  mood, with worry  written all over his dark, suntanned  face. The death of his Peshwa, Bajirao, had come as a great shock to him. He who had not lost a single battle had succumbed to the vagaries of nature. The middle aged Shahu let out a deep breath, reminiscing of past events.Who could replace his Peshwa, Bajirao? he wondered. Was that even possible?  He looked heavenward as as if  seeking an answer. But even he knew the answers would have to be found by him and his ministers alone. He had called the various Maratha chieftains to his court, to hammer out a solution. He had in fact, a young boy in mind for the coveted job, but still believed it necessary to seek the opinion of the other Maratha chieftains. Shahu could ill afford falling out with someone like Raghuji Bhosale or Malharrao Holkar; protégés of Bajirao. They had started trooping in, one by one, or had at least sent representatives from the far flung places the Marathas had managed to conquer over the course of twenty years. From the corner of his eye, Shahu suddenly sensed some movement.Turning to look, he could see that  a horseman clad in pure white  had almost reached the fort.Shahu smiled, for the newcomer was none other than Chimaji Appa, the brother of the deceased Bajirao, and an important Maratha courtier. Shahu watched him make  his way slowly up the broad staircase which wound its way to the top of the hill, ending in a massive and imposing darwaja made of the black and sturdy stones of the Sahyadris . His spotless white clothing gleamed in the bright sunlight. A red pagdi, typical of  Brahmin courtiers, with a large plume of velvet adorned his head. A necklace of large pearls around his neck, symbolic of his royalty. On the upper part of his right ear, was a small ring of gold, with a couple of small pearls strung through it. The bhikbali, for that is what the unique earring was called, was synonymous with his high standing at the court.Shahu hurried away from the fort wall, and towards the darwaja, to receive him. 
“Welcome Chimaji” said Shahu with a broad smile on his face, even as he personally stepped out of the tall, grand gate of the fort at Satara to receive him. Chimaji got off his horse, happy to see Shahu . An attendant quickly rushed forward and took the horse away to the stables , even as Shahu approached Chimaji with a smile on his face. He spread his arms wide and warmly hugged Chimaji Appa, “Wish we could all meet under happier circumstances. Raghuji Bhosale, Holkar, Scindia, yourself, it is sad we have to meet on such an occasion,” said Shahu as they began walking towards the palace.
“It has been HIS will. We must accept it,” said Chimaji with a slight smile on his face, not betraying the slightest note of sadness, although Shahu knew, he must have been shattered by the news.The two of them walked in silence towards the durbar set in the grand building that was the seat of Maratha power . Chimaji was ushered into the court where the splendor of the rising Maratha empire was more than evident. The large hall had tall  arches  of  teakwood, exquisitely carved pillars and beautifully done, large windows, of the Deccani style. Expensive carpets with minute details covered the floor and huge , rich tapestries hung from the walls. At the corners of the hall, the walls had been cut into an octagonal shape, keeping in step with traditional Marathi architecture. The courtiers had already assembled, and bowed  in respect as Chimaji made his way to his place at the durbar, closer to the Chhatrapati.
 

Indian revival under the Marathas .

Indian history has followed a set pattern . Especially when it comes to military victories and defeats . In victory , the opponent lived to regroup , expand and retaliate and in defeat , native powers got wiped out in totality . Case in point Prithviraj Chauhan . Status quo inspite of resounding wins and utter obsolescence in defeat . The way we treated our gains after the war in 1971 harks back to this self defeating doctrine . We had Pakistan on the mat and could have gotten anything in return and settled the issue once and for all . All we did was sign some Shimla agreement . Today we are faced with nuclear war .

The Marathas , from Chhatrapati Shivaji onwards , provided a new and fresh outlook in this regard . For the first time in centuries invading armies got a taste of their own medicine . Nocturnal raids , loot , politics and annexation of enemy territory were unheard of as far as Hindu kings were concerned . Shivaji Maharaj lighted the flame of revival , for the first time in many years ( the last Hindu kingdom , Vijayanagar , had been finished in 1565 ) there was an indigenous kingdom on the horizon . But more important is the way the Marathas conducted themselves after his death and after the long drawn war with the Mughals . It would have been easy for them to stay holed up in the Sahyadris , guarding their borders and invading the heartland every now and then for some easy loot . That would have been in tune with much of the nations's history . Vestiges of the Mughals would have thrived all over the country , and would have continued till kingdom come . But Shahu , Bajirao and others recognised the threat they posed . The majority of the battles fought by the Marathas were against blokes of this type -- the nizam , Aliverdy khan , nawabs of the south , mughal outposts in Malwa and Gujarat , Afghans in Punjab and elsewhere ... topped with ofcourse Panipat . In the course of all this , battles were won , territories regularly annexed and some kingdoms banished to oblivion for eg Cuddapah and Ahmedabad .

Across the hallowed peaks ....

The dry brown red cedar leaf crunched under the horse’s hoof, splintering into a hundred pieces with a distinct crackle. Rehmat Khan Barakzai, astride the sturdy Arabian horse, wrapped his keffiyah closer to his face, to protect himself from the chilly autumn winds that had begun to blow across the Afghan city of Kandahar. He looked across the barren landscape, a drab mixture of  grey and light brown and yellow. Here and there, the spruce and deodar trees sprang out of the ground, bereft of leaves, which lay scattered at the  base of their trunks. He scanned the area with the vision of a hawk, his eyes honed in

the Pashtun highlands ,  watching the Afghans , clad in their usual long flowing clothes ,go about their daily business. A bearded man carting away some fruit , a man on horseback rushing away to somewhere , few others strolling towards a mosque .Rehmat Khan was annoyed that the person he was waiting for hadn’t yet showed up . He put his hand to his forehead and peered into the distance . Rehmat Khan spotted a lone horseman , slowly making his way towards him. His the outline of his kapol could be clearly made out . Finally ! , thought Rehmat Khan ,  even as he raised his right hand and waved it,  signalling to the new comer.

“Taso sanga yay?” asked Barakzai ,  cheerfully, as Mohamadzai came within earshot. “Pakhair” came the reply, Mohamadzai’s  white teeth glistening in a broad smile. He was well into his fifties, with a rapidly graying  beard and cheeks which had grown infirm with age. There was still a firm determination in his eyes though, a sign of the numerous trials by fire he had to go undergo as Khan of his tribe.

Barakzai gave a sharp jab to this horse with his right heel, and turned

towards the dusty road leading to the tomb of Sher-e-Surkh. The old fort at Kandahar towered above them, lording over the Pashtun heartland.  The two warlords had been invited to a jirga by the Pir Sabir Shah. Slowly they made their way their horses moving in a rhythmic trot over the barren track. It was customary for the Pashtuns to conduct such jirgas from time to time. These councils, would then decide issues of social and political importance to the Pashtuns. The untimely death of Nadir Shah, the Persian ,had prompted this latest jirga. Sensing that the Afghan lands would fall into disarray one again, Pir Sabir Shah had organized this jirga at the holy place. The Mohamadzai, Popalzai, Barakzai, Jadran, and other Pashtun chieftains had been specially invited. 
Before long, the two of them had arrived at the simple sandstone monument that was the tomb of Sher-e-Surkh. Rehmat Khan Barakzai looked at the group of camel hide tents which came in view as they climbed a hillock. Coarse cream coloured fabric, blending into the surrounding plains. Barakzai and Mohamadzai trotted closer to the camp,where the Pir himself was ready to welcome them.
Pir Sabir Shah wore a green robe which reached down to his ankles. A black turban adorned his head with one end dangling loose over his left shoulder. His white beard, with the moustache completely shaved off, reached down to his chest. The Pir, a hafeez of the Qu'ran, welcomed the newcomers with a kind smile, causing more wrinkles to appear on an already heavily wrinkled face.Rehmat Khan Barakzai sat cross legged on the coarse rug provided to him and surveyed the rare gathering of Pashtun chiefs. A couple of them were Mohamadzai tribesmen from elsewhere. Shinwaris, Jadran, Yousufzais, and others made up the motley crowd . Rehmat Khan noticed that the Afridis of the Khyber Pass were absent from the august gathering.There was much chatter and gossiping going on. But one young, tall Pakhtun conspicuously kept to himself. He seemed engrossed in himself, unwilling to join in the banter. Haji Jamal Khan, one of the most popular people at the jirga, was engaged in a rather animated discussion with two others. Even as they were busy deciding upon a new king, young servants brought food and drink for them.--- excerpt from ' Sahyadris to Hindukush ' 

Maratha ruled forts in the Punjab

A few forts in the Punjab which came under Maratha rule for a some  months in 1758


Raghoba's letter to Peshwa Balaji Bajirao, 4 May 1758 :
“ Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subhas on this side of Attock are under our rule for the most part, and places which have not come under

 our rule we shall soon bring under us. Ahmad Shah Durrani's son Timur Shah Durrani and Jahan Khan have been pursued by our troops, and their troops completely looted. Both of them have now reached Peshawar with a few broken troops. So Ahmad Shah Durrani has returned to Kandahar with some 12-14 thousand broken troops. Thus all have risen against Ahmad who has lost control over the region. We have decided to extend our rule up to Kandahar. "    

1 .  Sirhind    March 1758 

 2 . Lahore   March 1758

One Division of the Maratha troops under the command of Malhar Rao crossed the Yamuna in the end of December, 1757 and sieged the fort of Kunjapura. Abdus Samad Khan. the Sirhind Governor was engaged in fighting with Ala Singh of Patiala. He had besieged a fort of Sunam and imposed a fine on him. On hearing the news of Maratha arrival, he settled terms with Ala Singh and hastened back to Sirhind o

n January 12, 1758.
The Maratha General Raghunath Rao reached Mughal-Ki-Sarai
near Ambala on March 5. Rajpura on 6th and Sarai Banjara on the
7th. Sirhind was sieged on March 9, 1758. Lahore around 20th March , Attock in April   . 

3. Multan and Dera Ghazi Khan --  April 1758 

4. Attock -- April 1758 

Maratha - Rajput relations in 18th century- A complete mess

The fractured and disjointed nature of the events in this part of the country showed me the limits of a historical novel . I did not have the luxury of putting a title on top - Marathas and Rajputs - and then blazing away with all facts and figures .  Through this blog post , I will try and paint a picture of the scene that was Rajasthan in the 18th century . When the Marathas were on the ascent and the Rajputs had become truly free after serving some or the other sultanate for upwards of 800 years .

The Rajputs , after serving some or the other Mughal for ages , began life as sovereigns in about 1700 . To the north , the Mughals had fallen apart  and to the south , the Marathas were still fighting whatever Aurangzeb could throw at them . This situation prevailed till around 1712 , when the Marathas began plundering Gujarat and Malwa . The Rajputs too were free by then , and one would think they would take the opportunity with both hands . They even had Bappa Rawal , Veer Hammir and others to look up to . A Rajput invasion of Multan and Sindh was highly possible , even desirable . Sadly , that didn't happen . 

Upto the late 1730s there was no real contact between the two powers . After invading Gujarat and Malwa ,    Bajirao did not sweep into the Rajput states . Infact , he seems to have followed a policy of targeting the erstwhile Mughal provinces of Gujarat , Malwa and Hyderabad , which were still being ruled by Nawabs and Nizams . There is one fleeting case of Bajirao being called to settle a Rajput dispute . Bajirao himself , alarmed at the pasting that Nadir Shah gave Delhi , wanted to create a Rajput confederacy in 1739 . As it turned out , Nadir Shah did not venture south , and this grand plan fizzled out . 

But by the late 1730s , the Marathas had come to dominate much of western , southern and central India . They were the power brokers . Everyone , including the Rajputs , wanted to ride piggy back on this new kid in town . They were expected to wade into two warring parties and solve their problems . The Marathas also took upon themselves the task of putting the whole country in order . By the mid 1740s , the Marathas and Rajputs were well and truly entangled in their politics . 

They had so far maintained a hands off approach , but when they did finally take matters in their own hands , the Marathas found it to be anything but a smooth ride . I will cite two examples here , from the 1740s .. to give a rough idea of the mess that was Rajasthan back then .   

Case 1 :  Jaipur

Jaipur was being ruled by Sawai Jai Singh . He promised one of his queens that her son would be the heir . But as it turned out , Madho Singh was born to her AFTER Ishwar Singh was born to another wife of Jai Singh . Incredibly , Jai Singh tried to get Madho Singh killed to settle the issue !  The king died and it came down to war between the two brothers .Madho Singh combined with his uncle Maharana Jagat Singh and  declared war on Ishwar Singh. The latter  called upon Holkar .After a couple of skirmishes ,  Holkar was of the belief that Ishwar Singh should hand over Niwai , Tonk , Toda and Malpura to Madho Singh . But the Rajput did not budge . One thing led to another and finally in 1748 the Peshwa himself arrived at Niwai to settle the issue . This time , Nanasaheb asked him to hand over Rampura , Bhanpura , Toda and Niwai to Madho Singh . It again came down to war at Bagru  , in which Holkar sided with Ishwar Singh and defeated madho singh . Shinde stayed aloof from this . ( Some sources say Surajmal was involved and that this episode is actually the beginning of the Shinde - Holkar rivalry ) . Ishwar Singh refused to hand over the four parganas as promised and the Marathas were once again left wringing their hands . His untimely death in 1750 meant that the whole of Jaipur went to Madho Singh . Holkar and Shinde supported this . Everything seemed settled at last , but Madho Singh was more interested in playing politics of vendetta . He once tried to poison Maratha sardars to death at a luncheon . In another incident , he ordered a summary massacre at a bazaar , where marathas from the nearby camp had gathered . Luckily , none of the important leaders died in either incident . After this , Madho Singh spent his time warring with the neighbouring kingdoms .

Case 2 : Jodhpur

This case in worse than Jaipur . Here the dispute was between one Ramsingh and his cousin Vijay singh  in 1752 . Both were fighting a feud that was two generations old , originating in the time of Farukh Siyar .According to their treaty with the Mughals , the Marathas were called upon to settle this problem too . Jayappa Shinde was deputed to resolve the crisis . He decided to put down Vijay Singh . Accordingly , the Marathas laid siege to Nagore , where Vijay Singh was staying . It was a straight forward battle , until one day when Jayappa Shinde got murdered while taking a bath .Now the Marathas were totally pissed off . They tightened the siege and forced Vijay Singh to give up Ajmer and Jalore forts  This case was also marred by Marathas not receiving khandani as wished .

There were other similar cases like Bundi etc during this time . All follow the same track of infighting , deceit , inability to reach a solution etc .

Further on at Panipat , the Rajputs of this era forgot all their chivalry and dharma of ages past and refused to join the Marathas . As to how was Abdali a better bet, in light of his destruction of temples etc is quite mind boggling .

In the 1780s , Mahadji Shinde tried to bring some order to this province . His artillery under DeBoigne had a telling effect . The nominal control that the Peshwa had in 1740s was tightened further by him . Alwar , Ajmer , Jaipur etc passed into Maratha hands . Mahadji's death in 1794 put a spoke into these plans .

So there it is .. political wrangling between Marathas and rajputs - a sad chapter in indian history .

Conclusions :

1) The Marathas followed a 'hands off ' policy for much of the time . They were invited in by the Rajputs . After this , there was complete lack of planning and coherence . Suffice to say , Marathas burnt their fingers in this province .

2) Does this absolve the Rajputs ? Ofcourse not . They were truly free for the first time . A Bappa Rawal at this juncture could have changed the course of history . Sadly , the Rajputs spent all the time fighting amongst themselves . and when others like the Marathas tried to resolve issues , they too were dragged into the muck . Further on , no amount of looting by Marathas could match the actions of Abdali . They forgot their chivalry and history on the eve of Panipat . 

Marathas : Administration and finances in the 18th century

So you actually clicked on that title !! Wow ! That's  quite amazing . I hope you can brave it out till the end of this blog .

Well , would just like to discuss the basics of administration , finances etc in the 18th century . The boring jobs that the Peshwa and others did when they weren't invading kingdoms left , right and centre . Ofcourse , the boring jobs were then introduced to these conquered people .

I will concentrate on specifically the Peshwas for the purpose of this blog . The land  , just like today's talukas , districts , states had been divided into gaon , tarf  , prant etc . Essentially

Gaon  / Mauja  <  Tarf / Kuryat < Subah / Prant / Pargana .

The lowest administrative unit was the Gaon or village . The Patil was in charge of the well fare of the village and villagers . He was to collect revenue from each farmer , protect his crops , keep note of new settlers and new land being farmed etc .Land was measured by him in ' shiv shahi kathi ' . 1 shivkathi being equal to 114 inches approx .  In this , he would be helped by the Kulkarni .The Kulkarni , alongwith the Patil , would settle revenue issues of a village , maintain documents to the effect etc . Sometimes a Chougule would also be present , but such cases are rare . The Patil deputed Maharis to protect the crops as also carry messages elsewhere . Both Patil and Kulkarni were hereditary positions .

A collection of villages made up a Tarf  ( I wonder whether turf war comes from this , especially given it's Maharashtra :D ) Anyways , dumb jokes apart , this was an administrative unit just above the village . The Deshmukh was in charge of a tarf . He was an analogy of the Patil on a higher level . His official work would be handled by the Deshpande , much like the Kulkarni . The Deshmukh and Deshpande were hereditary .Kings came and went , but Deshmukhs stayed ! Infact , some Deshmukhs ended up serving two masters at the same time . ( Things like patriotism  , nationalism as we know it  , fenced borders etc was still way in the future , so hold your horses . Such kind of hilarious behaviour was completely normal )

The Peshwa appointed Kamavisdars or Tarafdar  at every Tarf .He also appointed Mamledar( Mamlatdars )
if total revenue was going to top 1,00,000 . The Patil , Kulkarni would report to the Deshmukh , Deshpande and Kamavisdar . They would do all the donkey work year round . Twice a year , at harvest time , the Mamledar sauntered in for his own audit at  every tarf and settled the revenue , dues , documents etc .He would receive 1 % of revenue as his fees .  He would then directly report to the Peshwa . Precursor to corporate life I think .

Thus we have  :  Patil <  Deshmukh  < Kamavisdar < Mamledar < Sarsubhedar* < Peshwa

Yeah , so where did Sarsubhedar come from ? This was another post created to manage lands and mahals which were not close to Pune , but were under jurisdiction of the Peshwa . Gujarat , North Karnatak , some Mahals in Bengal etc . So , the Peshwa deputed sarsubhedars to act on 'his behalf ' . He had the power to apply the Peshwa's seal on documents . He could also appoint Mamledars and Kamavisdars . Phadnis , Mujumdar , Diwan , Potdar , Potnis , Chitnis etc were still appointed by the Peshwa to work under these Mamledars and sarsubhedars . ( Yawn ... I am falling asleep writing this ) .

This was the case with land based administration and revenue .

Apart from this , 25 % tax ( chauthai ) was collected from vassals and defeated kingdoms . If someone was awarded Sardeshmukhi , 10 % of the prant's or subah's revenues went straight to him . eg Holkar getting sardeshmukhi of Chandore in 1748 .


Finally , at the Shaniwarwada , the Phadnis would help the Peshwa with official work . Offices of 18 different types were set up at the wada :

1) Tofkhana
2) Hatti khana
3) Armoury
4) Faraskhana
5) Wood workshops
6) Buildings
7) Gardens
8) Kurne
9) Chariots
10) Jamadarkhana
11) Vaidyashala
12) Pustak shala
13) Ratna shala



Sources : Konkan - Earliest to 1818  :  Dr VG Khobrekar
             : Marathayancha Itihas - Kulkarni & Khare  ( essay in book on administration by V.T.Gune )
           

QISSA QAHANI BAZAAR SCENE , PESHAWAR 

  

EXCERPT

Inside the kehwa khana, two traders clasped their earthen
cups of kehwa with both their hands trying to keep themselves
warm. They had come a long way, from the fabled city of
Samarkand and intended to reach Agra in a few days. The halt
at 

the Qissa Qahani bazaar of Peshawar was much sought after;
especially after the trudge through the Khyber Pass.
“Da Kandahar, Kabul, Ghazni da waqiat na taso sa
akhaz kawai ta ma das a shi ishaari ra kawi” Suleiman
Achakzai’s ears pricked up upon hearing the words Kandahar,
Kabul, Ghazni. Although old with a white beared and having a
face full of wrinkles, his senses were still sharp.
“Haghwi wai che da Abdali pakhtun da har sa da yao
farsiwan Nadir Shah. na azda kari”.
“Zama pa khayal hagha ba os Ali Masjid na watalay
wi.”
This was news indeed! thought Suleiman Achakzai

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