Maratha Empire & Bundelkhand - Aneesh Gokhale

Marathas v/s British - Malanggad ( Haji Malang ) - 1780 .

A long drawn battle took place between the British East India Company and the Marathas under Nana Phadnavis in the monsoon of 1780 for the control of Malanggad , also known as Haji Malang – famous for an old dargah of that name which is situated on the hill . It is a prominent landmark near Kalyan , where an  ’urs ‘ for the dargah takes place annually .

Reasons for conflict : 

As of 1780 , the primary concern of the British was to secure and fortify the Island of Mumbai  , their base in this part of India . Hence , apart from forts in South Mumbai and what are today its suburbs – Sion , Mahim etc  , they also wanted to secure the routes leading into the city . Bor Ghat and Kasur Ghat to name a couple . The whole aim was to cut off all routes to Mumbai from Pune , where Nana Phadnavis resided with considerable forces at his disposal . But by blocking the ghats and capturing the heights  , the British wanted to neutralise any future Maratha plans of retaking Mumbai . The town of Kalyan was situated at a most opportune location . Having been a town right from Chhatrapati Shivaji’s times , it had major routes from both Pune – Khopoli as well as the north ( Kasara Ghat )  passing through it . The fort of Malanggad was situated right next to Kalyan , and commanded an excellent view of the region . The British aimed to capture this fort and then turn their attention to Vasai . With the routes leading to Mumbai from Pune blockaded and watched over , and little help expected from Gujarat , the capture of Vasai would make the ‘ring ‘ around Mumbai complete .

British moves :

Capt. Campbell captured Parsik hill  the 12th of April , 1780 . The next day , that is on 13th April 1780 , the town and fort of Panvel was taken by Capt Lendrum . This being an important Maratha outpost , the British wanted to nip any help which may reach Kalyan by the Panvel- Taloja – Kalyan road in the bud itself . The fort of Belapur also fell to the British on the same day . From here , Capt Lendrum moved to Taloja and forced the Maratha chowkie established at the place to retreat to Kalyan . Kalyan was beseiged towards the end of April by Capt Campbell . Continuous bombarding for over five hours finally caused the fort to crumble . The arrival of another senior officer , Capt Hartley , aided in the British capture of Kalyan . With Panvel and Kalyan taken and the roads secured , the British turned their attention to Malanggad . 

Belapur – Taloja – Malanggad

The Malanggad Fort :

This fort , situated near Kalyan consists of two machis and a balekilla . The hill stands rather isolated , and one can see for miles upon miles for end from its summit . I have myself trekked to it’s summit and have spotted the Mumbai – Pune Expressway from there . Without any binoculars . On the other side , the whole of the Ambernath and Ulhasnagar area can be seen . On the third side are Tavli and other such hills which were never full fledged forts . Infact , the summits of these nearby hills are nearly impossible to reach . Thus , the strategic value as well as natural defenses of the fort become readily evident .

Old British painting ( 1800 ) showing Malanggad

The Marathas and British :

When Kalyan fell ,  Malanggad was under the control of one Pandurang Sambhaji Ketkar . The British did not immediately move towards the fort in the hot months of May and June , but instead decided on August to attack .    Since the time of Shivaji , the monsoons had been taken as a time when warfare came to a stalemate in the hills and forests of the Sahyadris . What with the torrential rain making moving on the slushy ground extremely difficult and the dense fog making it impossible to sight anything . So , even in 1780 , not expecting much action , some of the garrison from Malanggad had been granted leave . On the 4th of August 1780 , Abbington attacked the fort and although Pandurang Ketkar fought bravely , managed to capture Pir Machi . This is the Machi on which the dargah is situated . Ketkar retreated to the other machi – Sone machi and decided to make a stand over there . Since the machi was not stocked with enough grain for all three hundred , upto 175 soldiers left the fort and made their way to Gangadhar Karlekar , the mamlatdar of Kalyan . Pandurang Ketkar continued to fight Abbington with his hundred odd troops and a few months of food supply .

Pune reacts :

Nana Phadnavis , realising the gravity of the situation , decided to send Gangadhar Karlekar , Kashipant and Anandrao Dhulap to aid Pandurang Ketkar .They reached Neral , near today’s hill station of Matheran . From here unfortunately , the next fortnight was spent in indecision , with the result that it was as late as 28th of August that they finally managed to reach a village called Kharawai near the fort . Abbington now tried to capture Sone machi and the bale killa by one spectacular  attack on it , but failed in doing so . Pandurang Ketkar and his gardi musketeers were equal to the task . Not only did they manage to beat back the British assault , but even forced their cannons to retreat from Pir machi .The British grip on the lower ranges of the fort weakened , and Gangadhar Karlekar was able to send some much needed supplies and provisions to Ketkar . Nana Phadnavis , sensing that Gangadhar Karlekar was making little headway , now sent Balaji Phatak and Ragho Godbole to lift the siege . The two reached Shiravali in the first week of September and were joined by the others – i.e  Karlekar , Dhulap and Kashipant . Turn by turn , the contingents of Anandrao Dhulap  , Karlekar and Godbole attacked the British on Pir Machi , while Phatak supported them from their camp below and Pandurang Ketkar from the machi above . The Marathas managed to bring their cannon to Pir Machi and bombard the British positions .  Considerable damage was caused to Abbington , but in the absence of a concentrated Maratha attack , they managed to hold fort . Finally , the 18th of September was chosen as the day when a combined attack would be mounted on the British . And in all probability , this would have meant the end of the British siege , but nature had other plans in mind .

A reprieve for the British  & a British counter attack :

On the 18th , it rained cats and dogs at Malanggad , making any warfare impossible . The entire region was shrouded in dense fog which made even the fort itself appear just like a ghostly blur . The planned attack had to be put off for obvious reasons . Abbington had not been sitting idle on Malanggad . He sent messages to Major Westphal at Kalyan , asking for help . Westphal responded by sending troops from Bhivandi around the 17th , which cut off the supply routes of the Marathas . Colonel Hartley started from Mumbai proper and taking the Belapur – Taloja route , reached Shiravali , the Maratha camp . Here , a fight ensued between the Marathas and Hartley and the former were driven back to the village of Vavanje . At Vavanje , the Marathas faced a two pronged attack from both Hartley and Jameson , causing them to first retreat to Panvel and then to Khopoli . Meanwhile at Malanggad : Pandurang Sambhaji Ketkar was once again left alone to fend off his attackers . The British had been weakened but not evicted . A Col Carpenter was now sent to aid the British assault on Sone machi and the bale killa . Pandurang Ketkar and his two Gardi musketeers Aziz Khan Jamadar and Abu Sheikh Jamadar held off wave after wave of British attacks in the early days of October . Even concentrated attacks were repulsed with clever use of muskets and swords . The Gardis ofcourse were expert in using the musket . All this , when their supposed reinforcement was fighting a battle in far away Khopoli .   But the point being that Pandurang Ketkar held the fort .Failure to do so would have meant a direct threat to Pune in 1780 itself .

My pic of the place .

The siege lifts : 

Nana Phadnavis  now decided to step in himself . Free from troubles elsewhere , he moved to Khandala with Yashwantrao Panse , Bhavani Shivram and Haripant Phadke . Their plan was to take the Rajmachi route and reach Kalyan . He immediately instructed Panse and Shivram to proceed to Malanggad . Another officer was sent in the direction of Vasai . Col Hartley , with his troops fighting in various places at the same time , was had pressed to find an answer to this 10,000 strong army led by Phadnavis himself . Plus , even after two months of fighting , the citadel of Malanggad was still in Maratha hands . Hence , around November 1780 , the British lifted the siege of Malanggad .

Conclusion :

1. The British troop movements were better planned .

2. The Marathas managed their supply lines poorly .

3. The bravery displayed by Pandurang Ketkar and his Gardi musketeers is what kept the fort from falling . It fell eventually in 1897 . 4. The Ketkar family , which attributes the 1780 success to the dargah , continues to be its caretaker .

Ref :  The First Anglo Maratha War –  M.R . Kantak

Battles of Honourable East India Company .

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Written  by   Aneesh Gokhale . ( Author of ‘Sahyadris to Hindukush ‘ –  a historical novel about the rise of Maratha and Afghan empires , culminating in conquest of Attock by the Marathas )

Khushal Khan Khattak v/s Aurangzeb . North West Frontier , 1670s .

11 May 2014 at 23:18

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A : Hasan Abdal . B: Peshawar C : Jamrud D: Ali Masjid . E : Kabul

* Pashtun / Pathan are the same thing . --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------This son of mountains is never less than the Mughals , O’companion!
 May I tell you the secrets of my heart?
Khushal Khan likes that grave where the dust of Mughal’s horse’s boots could not fall.

Khushal Khan Khattak

Khushal Khan Khattak was born around 1613 at a place called Akoray near today's Attock , Pakistan . His family had already been serving the Mughals for two whole generations when he was born . In fact , for the first half of his life , he too stuck to the family tradition . His father , Shehbaz Khan Khattak was a Mughal mansabdar under Shah Jahan , given a jagir in the Nowshera region and was responsible for the Attock - Peshawar portion of the Grand Trunk Road . Shehbaz Khan Khattak was loyal to Delhi , to the point of waging war against his fellow Pathans ,  Yusufzai renegades ,  in the region  . Shehbaz Khan Khattak fell fighting the Yusufzai in 1645 , a battle in which Khushal Khan Khattak himself participated and was wounded . In view of the yoeman services rendered by two generations of Khattaks , Shah Jahan confirmed Khushal as mansabdar in place of his father and affairs were to continue as before .

Aurangzeb

The advent of Aurangzeb and the Pathan revolt : 

At the time Aurangzeb ascended the Mughal throne , by murdering his brothers and throwing the incumbent , Shah Jahan , into prison , the empire spread from the mountains beyond Kabul to the northern edge of the Sahyadris . And from the Indus to Bengal . Much of it had been static since the times of Jalaluddin Akbar  and had more or less stayed the same during the Jehangir and Shah Jahan's reigns . If at all , it had expanded - for eg Shah Jahan's conquest and annexation of the Nizam Shahi in the Deccan . This was what Aurangzeb obtained by sheer dint of being born at the famed Lal Qila . But the 6th Mughals politics was of a different brand . His approach was heavy handed , and he treated even his highest ranking officers with great suspicion . Anyone appearing to get to big for his shoes for quickly cut to size . At this point in time , Kabul subah was very much in Mughal hands . The Mughal subhedar at Kabul was responsible for the whole region spanning upto Attock on the river Indus . This included the cities of Peshawar , Jalalabad and the Khyber Pass proper . Amin Khan Shahdar , the governor in 1658 , managed to spread canards against Khushal Khan at Delhi , making Aurangzeb suspicious . It led him to believe that Khushal Khan was getting too powerful in the region , and soon issued orders for his arrest . So , around 1658 , Khushal Khan Khattak , whose family had served the Mughals for nearly a century , found himself in a prison at Ranthambore . Almost a decade of incarceration and torture followed , during which time he developed a life long hatred of the Mughals ; which amply showed in his poetry composed at the time . And ofcourse , he maintained that he was entirely innocent . As a couplet of him says :           " I am in Aurangzeb's prison undeservedly . Allah alone knows about these allegations and slander . "   Finally , in 1668 , he was released and asked to accompany Mohammed Amin Khan on an expedition to the frontier to quell trouble being caused by the Yusufzais . While two decades earlier he had fallen upon them without a care for his life , his loyalty to the Mughal banner had now taken a severe beating. He stayed largely  aloof , and soon detached himself from the Mughals . His next few years were spent in penning poetry which aimed to rouse a sense of patriotism amongst the Pashtuns and encourage them to fight for their independence from Aurangzeb , having been insulted by him .

An example is given below : ( I guess it rhymes in the Pashto version )  
Cup Bearer, fill the flagon, fill it high,
Khushal shall sing of war in revelry,
Now blood has stained the hands of the pashtun youth,
The talons of the hawke that knows no ruth,
 For full 5 years the tribal sword has flashed, keen edged and bright,
Since first the battle clashed, Upon tatara's peak,
where at one blow, Twice twenty thousand of the moghul foe, Perished, wives, sisters, all that they held dear,
Fell captive to the all conquering afghan spear,


A slaughter in the Khyber Pass :

The Yusufzais were soon brutally crushed and Mohd. Amin Khan assumed subhedari of Kabul . In 1672 , he had moved to Peshawar to oversee some official work . Around this point of time , Aurangzeb had abolished 'rahdari '  or toll - tax , across the empire ; causing much heartburn especially in regions like the Khyber Pass , where there were few other sources of income .  This coupled with allegations that Mohammed Amin Khan's soldiers had molested women of the Safi tribe in what is now Kunar in Pakistan ( East of Peshawar ) caused widespread resentment . When fellow tribesmen killed the offenders , Mohammed Amin Khan responded by coming down heavily on the tribals themselves , aggravating the situation . Owing to the above two reasons , the Afridis of the Khyber Pass rose in revolt and quietly closed the pass , not allowing a caravan to pass to Kabul . Akmal Khan Afridi ( referred to in some places as Darya Khan Afridi ) declared himself independent and went to the extent of minting coins in his name . Considering that both Peshawar and Kabul were in Mughal hands , it was a brave if not audacious thing to do . He then proclaimed jihad , or holy war , against Aurangzeb ; who in Agra was busy painting himself as a model of piety  .     Mohammed Amin Khan responded in the usual ham handed manner , pouring men and money into the pass . A 15,000 strong Mughal army entered the Khyber , alongwith the usual entourage of camp followers . The Afridi and other tribes let them pass unmolested upto Ali Masjid , located at the narrowest point in the Khyber Pass . A point so narrow , it was tough work for even two caravans to pass each other . At Ali Masjid , arrows , stones , bullets and boulders rained down on the hapless Mughal army . The armed tribes swooped down on them from all sides and slaughtered the entire army . At the end of the mayhem , just four of the original 15,000 remained alive . 20,000 of the non combatants were imprisoned and sent off to Central Asia . Amin Khan had to bribe his own family out of captivity ! The resounding success of the Afridis brough many Pashtun tribes together . Khushal Khan's poetry inspired them to unite against a common enemy . Many minor scuffles followed , in which alongwith Darya Khan Afridi and Aimal Khan Mohmand , Khushal Khan Khattak showed that he was as proficient with the sword as with the pen .The Afridis , Shinwaris , Mohmands , Safi and many tribes participated .




More troubles for Aurangzeb :

Recognising the gravity of the problem ,  Aurangzeb sent Mahabat Khan and the Rajput Maharaja Jaswant Singh to the region . Marathi readers will readily recognise the latter name . He stationed himself at Jamrud at the mouth of the Khyber , but was unable to make much headway . Irritated , Aurangzeb sent the relatively inexperienced Shujat Khan -  much to the chagrin of the two sent in advance .    Shujat , eager to make a good impression , recklessly charged the Mohmands and other tribes at the Karapa pass in Feb 1674 -  the usual story of slaughter and mayhem followed . Shujat himself got killed and it was solely due to 500 Rajputs sent by Jaswant Singh that some were able to return back alive . Khushal Khan Khattak's poetry continued to inspire and the Mughals got another drubbing at Gandamak .

Aurangzeb at Hasan Abdal :

Now the padishah himself decided to move closer to the action , in the same month that Shivaji crowned himself Chhatrapati . In June 1674 , Aurangzeb arrived at Hasan Abdal , located between Rawalpindi and Peshawar and promptly took matters into his own hands .  He bribed tribe after tribe with tons of gold from the overflowing Mughal treasury . Then he dug into age old rivalries to set them against one another . He employed every trick in the book - sam ,daam , dand , bhed . Rajputs were poured into the conflict , and the best of Aurangzeb's Pathan warriors - Aga Khan and Diler Khan deployed to crush the rebellion . Although there were a few reverses , the tide began to turn by 1675 . Aimal Khan and Darya Khan were both killed battling the Mughals , and Khushal Khan Khattak was unable to keep up the anti Mughal front .  Worst of all , his sons were not a patch on him , with at least one - Behram Khan - openly defecting to Aurangzeb . In 1676 , Aurangzeb returned to Agra . A settlement was reached with the tribes , which involved an annual payment of 12 lakhs . Fortunately the governor at Kabul did not try any new tricks and an uneasy peace was maintained . A dejected Khushal Khan retired to the Tirah valley , located in the heart of Afridi dominated lands of the frontier . He continued to write poems about his love for his nation , unity , sacrifice etc etc .

 Aftermath and effect :

Although the Mughals managed to re establish themselves , things were never the same again . The Pathan backbone of the Mughals had been broken . And because the Rajputs had been pitted against them , the Pathans could not be relied upon for countering the Rajput rebellion which followed . The days of Diler Khan and Mirza Raje Jai Singh would never be repeated again in Mughal history . Aurangzeb had to delay his invasion of the Deccan until much later - a crucial window  which allowed  more time for the Marathas to build a base which to launch the 27 year War of Independence . Although the frontier had been a not so easy area , Jehangir and Shah Jahan had managed to keep the peace with various maliks ( tribal chiefs ) . Aurangzeb failed on this count .  Khushal Khan's legacy :He invoked a sense of nationalism amongst the Pashtuns . Inspired them to think as one nation and together face Mughal imperialism . Although he was not completely successful , the seeds he planted did not go completely waste .His ideals make him an inspirational figure , not just  the fact that he opposed the Mughals . For even Nadir Shah has that to his credit .   Mughal control of the frontier was forever  lost soon after Aurangzeb died . ---------

Khushal Khan's grave on which is written : "Da Afghan Pa nang mai watarala toora, nangyalai da zamanai Khushal Khattak Yam" (trans.: "I have taken up the sword to defend the pride of the Afghan, I am Khushal Khattak, the honorable man of the age.")

Khushal Khan's grave at Akkora Khattak .

 

A : Hasan Abdal . B: Peshawar C : Jamrud D: Ali Masjid . E : Kabul

References : Aurangzib Vol III - J.N Sarkar Khyber Pass in Imperial politics of Mughals ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------  I am Aneesh Gokhale , author of  'Sahyadris to Hindukush '  -  a historical novel capturing the Maratha and Afghan empires and their intertwining politics .in the 18th century .   

Sahyadris to Hindukush .

Walls of Attock

An example of my writing .  Discarded this part from Sahyadris to Hindukush eventually .

Did the Marathas see a view like this in April 1758 ?

THE WALLS OF ATTOCK —

The white and green waters of the Indus and the Kabuli gently caressed the base of the low hill on which stood the fort of Attock . The light coloured sandstone structure gleamed brightly under the scorching sun , while the intertwining waters of the Kabuli and the Indus rivers shimmered like an ocean of emeralds and diamonds . The holy river , the very cradle of civilisation , flowed silently and elegantly ; oblivious to the chaos unfolding on either side of its banks .
Raghunathrao gazed silently at the mountains on the other side , his hand resting on the beautiful crenellations of the fort . He could see a few empty boats still floating in the water below , remnants of Jehan Khan’s and Timur Shah’s dramatic escape to the safety of the Hindukush . His gaze turned to the small village of Khairabad on the opposite bank , with little sign of life . ‘What kind of people resided beyond this river , in those foreboding mountains ? ‘he wondered . The Indus seemed like a hallowed portal to him , a road leading to another world , rather than just another mute river . …

Sahyadris to Hindukush

Sahyadris to Hindukush

BATTLE OF KHARDA ( 1795 ) - MARATHA CONFEDERACY V/S NIZAM OF HYDERABAD .

15 January 2014 at 18:56

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The  battle of Kharda took place in March 1795 , ending up in a resounding win for the Marathas .  It is notable mainly for two reasons :

1)  It happened 34 years after Panipat , at which point all Maratha armies had supposedly  dissappeared for ever .
2)  It was the last time that the Confederacy fought as one , reminiscent of Bajirao and to a lesser extent Balaji Bajirao .



Background and cause :

Chauth and sardeshmukhi issues had been simmering between the Peshwa and the Nizam for quite some time . It was only their common war against Tipu sultan that had put the issue on a backburner . In 1791 though , the Marathas decided to push their demands through their envoys at Hyderabad -  Govindrao Kale and Govindrao Pingle . The Nizam provided his reply under 34 documents and promised to negotiate once the war with Tipu was over . Nana Phadnavis replied favourably to him , and both waited out a couple of years .

 When negotiations were re opened , the Nizam informed Govindrao Kale that the Marathasowed him  two and a half crore rupees !! .  He had also arranged for the British under Shore to be arbitrate in the dispute , much to the chagrin of the Marathas .  At the same time , the Nizam had augmented his army from 2 battalions under the Frenchman Raymond to 23 battalions ! .

Negotiations dragged on till 1794 , with the Nizam not budging from his demands and the Marathas from theirs . Finally , the Mushir Ul Mulk at Hyderabad summoned Govindrao Kale and told him that Nana Phadnis would have to come to Hyderabad for any progress to be made and that the Nizam was prepared to bring him to Hyderabad if the need arose !!  .  With the talks having fallen through , it was obvious that matter would have to be settled the old way .

 The Nizam  moves  to  Bidar : 


The Nizam of Hyderabad  alongwith Raymond , Mushir ul Mulk and the Nawab of Kurnool etc moved his  armies to Bidar by the beginning of 1795 .

From Bidar they proceeded to Wakigung and to the Mori Ghat , along the Manjiri river by February  . There was general feel of confidence in the camp , with the Nizam boasting of how Pune would be captured soon , and Khandesh etc annexed to Hyderabad  .  The Nizam had 45,000 cavalry ; 45,000 infantry and over a 100 guns at his disposal .





The Marathas coalesce at Pune :  

The Marathas under Sawai Madhavrao Peshwa , prepared to meet the challenge head on . A general call to arms was given , and a stupendous reply followed ! .

From the north , Daulatrao Shinde and Tukojirao Holkar joined the fray . From the west Gaikwad of Baroda arrived with his contingent . From the east , Raghuji Bhosale II contributed his cavalry under  . The loose Pindari mercenaries of Karim Khan joined in . Added to this were the contingents of Nimbalkar , Ghatge , Chavan , Pawar , Thorat , VInchurkar , Malegaonkar , Pant Sachiv and others who had so often rallied under the saffron standard .

Break of troops is as follows : Shinde :   25000
Holkar :   16000
Govindrao Gaikwad :  10000 (?)
Bhosale of Nagpur  : 15000  

The Peshwa's own HUzurat cavalry was under Baburao Phadke , with Patwardhan being given overall command .

All put together , the Maratha army was close to 1,00,000 alongwith a hundred guns .



The clash at Kharda : 

The Maratha army took the route via Aurangabad to Bidar , and managed to reach the vicinity of Wakigung and Paijiri .

Baburao Phadke was sent with an advance party to intercept the Nizam at the Mori Pass near Kharda  , which he did but ended up with heavy losses . He retreated towards the main army , hotly pursued by Raymond and his battalions . The commander in chief Parshuram Bhau Patwardhan now joined in , flanked by Shinde ,  Holkar's and Bhosale's contingents .
Very soon , war had broken out between the Nizam and the Marathas near the fort of Kharda . The drilled musketmen of Raymond clashed with those of Perron , under the Scindia . Skirmishing went on for the whole day , before both armies retired for the night  .

The Marathas now played their masterstroke . Under the cover of darkness , they attacked the Nizam with guns and muskets . The Nizam , believing there was nothing to fear , and had planned for the march to nearby Parinda fort , was rudely shaken up .  In the mayhem that followed , scores of his men were killed and a panic stricken Nizam retreated into the small fort at Kharda .




Marathas lay seige . Nizam comes to terms .  The Peshwa laid seige to the fort , while his Pindaries pillaged the deserted army camp .  After seventeen days of holding out , by which time all cattle in the fort perished and his soldiers were also driven to starvation , the Nizam decided to come to terms . A dagger and seal was sent to the Peshwa , signalling that he was ready to accept any condition imposed on him !!  The Peshwa gave a fitting reply , stamping his authority on this last great triumph .

He started off by asking for the Mushir Ul Mulk , who had insulted Nana Phadnis with his rude comments . The Nizam protested , but finally had to give in . His minister , the immediate cause of the war , was soon packed off to Pune as a prisoner .

The Nizam agreed to cede all land from Paranda fort to the Tapti river as well as fort of Daulatabad and territories which had been captured by Sadashivrao bhau in 1760 .

Further ,  3 crores 10 lacs  were obtained from the Nizam as tribute .
29 lac were given separately to Raghuji Bhosale  .
Land worth 3,00,000 annually  was given to Raghuji Bhosale .

A resounding win had been scored , stamping Maratha authority on south India for one last time  .  


_______________________________________________________________________________________________

I am Aneesh Gokhale ,  sailor , writer , trekker and history buff . My first book -  Sahyadris to HIndukush -  a novel on the rise of the Maratha empire was published recently . Visit www.aneeshgokhale.com  for more info . 

MARATHA CAVALRY

A short write up by me on the military structure of the Maratha army in the 18th century , with a special focus on the cavalry .  

As the empire spread from its confines amongst the hills and valleys of the Sahyadris , the reliance on forts and attendent guerilla warfare declined and gave rise to large contingents of cavalry . These allowed the armies mobility across the vast plains of Hindustan , enabling them to conduct lightning raids on far away places . It also enabled them to 'live off the land ', since a cavalryman travelled light . Through efficient use of his cavalry , Bajirao I  was able to travel from Pune to Delhi in few days flat - a feat unheard of in those days !! .  The cavalry could said to have been roughly divided into  -  huzurat , shiledar , bargir and pindari contingents . The last being a purely mercenary force .

 Huzurat -   The huzurat cavalry was a picked regiment of the Peshwa . They were his personal soldiers . Obviously , only the best of the best made up contingents of the Huzurat cavalry . They were paid from the government treasury. Their special stables were called huzurat paga .  

Shiledar  -    Shiledars owned both - their horses as well as their weapons . A contingent was known as 'pathak'and their leader was called  'Patki ' .  Many times these Patkis would have status of a 'sardar' .  

 The 'pathak' itself would be called ítlakhi ' incase its upkeep was through the government treasury . It was called 'saranjami pathak '   incase the upkeep was through land given for the same .

A shiledar was given a salary of Rs 25 - 30  per month .  About 1/3 -  1/2   was paid before Patkis would commit their contingents towards a campaign . This was called  'naalbandi '  

    

Bargi -    They owned neither their horse nor their weapons . Both was provided for by the ruler . The bargirs were given regular salary of Rs 5 -  10  .  Their stables would range from 10 horse to well over 500 . Heads of stables were known as 'amaldars ' . Incase of large stables , these amaldars were given the status of sardars .  Bargirs are most well known for carrying out raids deep into Bengal under the leadership of Bhaskarram Kolhatkar and Raghuji Bhosale .

Pindaris --  They were mainly  Muslim mercenaries from central  parts of India . A contingent of 1000 to 4000 was called a labhur . They were armed with spears , swords and few muskets . The pindaris lived entirely off loot and plunder .After getting some area marked out for them , they would proceed to lay it waste .The pindaris would keep whatever they looted , apart from flags , nishaan and other such symbols of someone else's rule .  The pindaris operated mainly under Holkar and Scindia .  

 _____________________________________________Ref :  Marathyancha Itihas - Kulkarni n Khare -  vol 2 . Univ of Pune         State at war in south asia - Pradeep Barua ___________________________________________________________________________________________

I am Aneesh Gokhale , a trainee navigating officer by profession . My first book - Sahyadris to Hindukush - a novel on the rise of the Maratha empire , detailing the years between 1740 and 1758 was published recently .  

Books I referred to .

Following is a list of books I referred to while writing Sahyadris to Hindukush



References :



1. History of the Marathas ( Vol 2 )    --                                  Grant Duff



2. History of the Marathas ( Vol 2)     --                                  Kincaid and Parasnis



3. Mughal administration                                                          Sir Jadunath Sarkar



4. Fall of the Mughal Empire                                                    Henry George Keane



5. History of the Afghans                                                           J.P. Ferrier



6. Among wild tribes of the Afghan frontier  --                         T.L. Pennell



7. The French in India                                                                 Col. G.B . Malleson



8. The Nizam                                                                               H.G. Briggs



9. History of the Sikhs                                                                 Cunningham



10. The Seir Mutaqherin                                                                Syed Ghulam Hossein Khan



11. A month in Peshawur and lady’s



ride through the Khyber                                                            L.R. Trevelyan



12. Poona in bygone days                                                               Rao Bahadur Parasnis



13. Shaniwarwada                                                                           Newase



14. Nawabs of Oudh



15. Maharashtra State gazetteer



16. Pune District Gazetteer



17. Satara District Gazetteer



18. Letters written in a Maratha camp ---                                    Thomas Duer Broughton



19. History of Marathas ( collection of essays in Marathi )  ---  Univ of Pune .



20. Marathi Riyasat ( Marathi )      -----                                      G.S. Sardesai



21. Marathi Riyasat ( Marathi ) ---                                              G.S . Sardesai



22. Balaji Vishwanath ( Marathi )  ---                                         Dikshit

Sahyadris to Hindukush - A beautiful journey

Its been six months now since  'Sahyadris to Hindukush '  was published .  People have been telling me its a good book , that they enjoyed reading . Nothing can be a bigger reward for me . My hard work of over two years has finally paid off !! And now , without doubt , onto the next one .  This one is done and dusted . :D .

  But to tell you the truth , I miss the journey . Yes having a book in your hands with your name printed on it is cool , but the beautiful journey to get there is something truly awesome . Of bringing alive peoples and places far away . Of bringing to life now derelict and abandoned monuments in your minds eye .Picturising long dead people as living entities like you and me  . Of imagining and feeling their pain , defeat , triumph and victory , across this huge chasm of time and space  .

I think I am being too hapazard here . Let me begin right from when I thought aboout this book .

I initially wanted to write pure fiction . An alternate history revolving around - what if  the third battle of Panipat had not taken place ? What if the Marathas had continued their northward push ? They would have reached the Hindukush mountains , and again encountered fiercely independent tribes . Once again , just like their native Sahyadris , guerilla warfare , hit and run attacks , the works would have come into play . But researching the topic , I found that the spread of the Maratha and Afghan empires in the 18th century was a rather unknown story in itself . Little has been written regarding how the Marathas reached Attock and Cuttack . Even less so about the simultaneous rise of the Afghan persona Ahmed Shah Abdali .

Thus started the quest for finding information , assimilating it , taking notes and then converting it into a dialogue fit for a novel ! . A journey that took me from the basalt precipices of the Sahyadris in Maharashtra to the durbar at the Delhi .  From the Shaniwarwada at Pune to the dusty fields of Awadh . I went through books and photos and tried recollecting my own visits to these places . I myself undertook the journey to a few of them . Back home , I could then paint a vivid enough picture of each setting . Going through books by British and Marathi authors alike  , I tried my very best to imagine the personalities described - the Peshwa , the Mughal , Safdarjung . It was fun , trying to invent the entire personality . I could not just write - he was a cruel person . That cruelty had to be brought into the character . The circumstances that brought about his cruel deeds had to be painted . And above all , the place and time had to match . When people read about the Imad ul Mulk blinding the Mughal , they should imagine a tumultous Mughal court . A Delhi in chaos . I hope I have managed to achieve this . Only my readers are best placed to tell this :) .

All was fine as far as events in Maharashtra , Delhi , Nagpur  and such places in India were concerned . My biggest challenge was bringing alive Pashtun culture . The Pakhtuns are a race situated on the Pak - Afghan border . To paint a convincing picture of Abdali and his Pathans , I felt the need to understand Pakhtun culture . The Pakhtun highlands , the rugged people . And therein was the hurdle .

I was apprehensive of chatting up Pakhtuns . Especially those of Pakistan . Marathi Brahmin befriends Pathans from Pakistan -- huh -- enough to give heart attacks to kattar panthis on both sides :D  .

I was apprehensive , given the kind of mahol around us , that it all might be a waste of time . That I might receive a barrage of anti Hindu and anti India comments , and that would be it as far as my research concerning Pakhtuns went .
  So for about 3 months I sat on it . While I tried to learn as much as I could via books written by British authors . These same British authors had also written books on Marathas and called them everything from thieves to pirates to looters etc . Supposing their assessment of Pakhtuns was also wrong ?
  So I thought , what the heck . I got on to the border less world on the internet and asked my doubts regarding Pakhtun culture , history , Pakhtunwali etc .

To my surprise , I was received with the utmost politeness . No random comments against India or Hindusim . Yes our opinions differed , but never did the tone go out of hand . The Pashtuns have a code of conduct - Pashtunwali -  in which Melmastia or hospitality is number one . I believe I saw the internet version of it . Hope to see the real version some day  :D .
   After that , I engaged in long discussions regarding Pathans , Pakhtun history n culture . I cross checked my descriptions of the Khyber Pass and Peshawar and Kabul with people who had actually been to those places ! It all helped to give my novel that 'authentic 'look .  With their help , I could insert Pashto dialogues in my book , which brought say a scene at the Qissa Qahani Bazaar alive ; apart from making the book truly unique .
  All this obviously led to my being friends with other Pakistanis and Afghans too and today I can safely say that a few of my best online friends are from Pakistan :)  . I do hope I get to see them in person some day .

Another reason was that I wanted to produce a balanced work . Pro Maratha but not religious fiction . Pro Hindu but not based on sectarian bashing of the other :) . The days I spent with my Pathan friends helped me produce this balanced world view .
  Perhaps I ran into exceptions ! Who knows !! But for sure I have stopped stereotyping the entire country .


And so the pieces started falling into place . The basic structure of the book was ready . Many of the pieces had been filled in . I would take my raw manuscript and go over again and again , reminscing of those times .
It had been a worthwhile journey , I had put myself in the saddle of an ordinary Maratha soldier when their armies swept across India . I was the proverbial fly on the wall when politics of intrigue played out in Delhi and Kandahar and Pune and Satara . And I became a traveller who travelled as best as he could to the hallowed lands of the Khyber . It was a journey worth undertaking .

Part 2  --  Business end . Cutting chopping checking looking for publishers :) 

What got me working on ' Sahyadris to Hindukush '

Well ,  so why did I choose to write on such a topic . 


I have always liked to trek , hike and roam in the Sahyadri mountains of my native state – Maharashtra . These hills , full of forts and steeped in history , sparked my interest in the subject. I like to read about history , about wars and battles fought long back as a leisure activity . Out of this hobby was born a wish to write a book myself ! 
Actually , I started off wanting to write a story 

based on an ‘alternate history’ . A ‘what if’ scenario centered around ‘what if the third battle of Panipat had not happened ?’ . What would history be like if the Marathas had continued their northward push ? . As I researched the subject however , I found that there is much to be discovered in the factual history itself ! . That the real story of the rise of the Maratha empire is a fantastic , unique and largely unknown story in itself !
There is a term in Marathi , used to denote achievement , which translates as ‘ carried flags beyond Attock’ . What connection does the language and the people have with a town on the Indus , deep inside present day Pakistan ? What relation does a city have which rhymes with Attock , but is on the Mahanadi – Cuttack ? This book has come out of an endeavour to find answers to these questions . It has been a journey of over two years ,which has taken me back in time to the 1740’s and 1750’s , when our long dead historical personalities were alive and the Shaniwarwada , forts at Satara and Panhala and the Red Fort at Delhi were living , breathing places .
When reading about the Marathas in mid 18th century , we are bound to come across Ahmed Shah Abdali .Who indeed was this person ? The answer has been another beautiful journey , possible only on the world wide web ! I have made a virtual tour deep inside Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Afghanistan . From the chilly autumn of Kandahar and through the fabled Khyber Pass to the Qissa Qahani bazaar of Peshawar , I came across , and was generously helped by Pashtuns from these distant and mysterious places , which we have heard about only in stories !
This then , is a story of victory . Written by an avid reader , trekker and history buff .  


' Sahyadris to Hindukush ' is a historical novel . 

MARATHA ARTILLERY

Zahir ud din  Babur arrived from faraway Samarkand in 1526 and annihilated Ibrahim Lodi's army at Panipat . Lodi was no pushover . What made the difference ? Babur's guns , the likes of which the Indian sub continent had never seen . Thanks to superior artillery , a person known more for his skills as a poet had managed to conquer Delhi and start the Mughal dynasty ! . The event should have been breaking news all over the land , with kings and princes falling over themselves trying to match or better the Mughal artillery and in the process create a name for Indian artillery as a whole . Sadly , nothing of that sort happened . Indian rulers always ended up being several steps behind top of the line artillery . Even today , we are dependent on the Swedish Bofors guns and there is talk of American Howitzers and Tomahawks being inducted . The year 2026 will mark 500 glorious years of India not being up to speed in this crucial arm of any army . Which is sad , considering the pivotal role artillery has played in many a battle.

         Anyways , that is the larger picture . My topic is a short talk on Maratha artillery .

Development of Maratha artillery could be said to have been started with Shivaji . Although involved mainly in guerilla warfare , Chhatrapati Shivaji understood the potency and importance of a strong artillery division . Real life experiences like the siege of Panhala , where the long - range English guns made a huge difference , shaped his opinion . Constrained as he was by a hundred things , he still went out of his way to ensure that his soldiers had access to the best weapons . Be they cannons or cannon balls . Much of this was procured from the Portuguese who had set up factories in Goa , Vasai , Daman and Diu .
     

Post Shivaji , with the Maratha embroiled in the war of independence with the Mughals , which was a 27 year long guerilla war , artillery and large guns were once more on the back burner . The Marathas neither had the time , nor the money and neither the desire to set up an effective artillery arm during those trying times.  
         Under Bajirao I , the Marathas finally began foraying into the north . Bajirao's methods though , out more emphasis on rapid movement of his cavalry , rendering the enemy's artillery rather ineffective . The Battle of Palkhed is a prime example of this . All this was fine as long as the Marathas were in someone  else's territory and harassing and evading their way to victory . Bajirao managed to reach Delhi in 3 days from Pune , a measure of his cavalry's capability . In comparison , the Mughal armies in their prime under Akbar and Aurangzeb could manage only around 5 - 8 kos ( 1 kos = 2.25 km ) a day , encumbered as they were with heavy , slow moving guns .
     But , as the Marathas went from being invaders to rulers , requiring to hold territory in the vast expanses of the north , artillery became all the more important . The old notions about soldiers considering fighting on foot below themselves could not continue . Bajirao established a factory for producing cannons in the 1730s .

Even so , the Marathas lacked the expertise to build and operate the latest guns , primarily because they were a product of the industrial revolution in Europe , which the Marathas had no clue about . Still , considering that they had come into contact with British guns as early as 1660s , it is surprising that they hadn't cracked the code to good artillery even 150 years later ! . Says a lot about both , the Europeans and Marathas . As a result , Maratha artillery divisions continued to be manned by Europeans and if not Europeans , then Arabs , Habshis etc . A Panse or Patwardhan were rare , and no match for a DeBussy or DeBoigne .
        Apart from a few sporadic incidents , Marathas continued to be a cavalry - centric army right upto the late 1750s . One change happened though . The superiority of the French artillery , which they saw in action at various places , made them induct Frecnh trained artillery men like Muzzafar Khan . And after him , the famous Ibrahim Khan Gardi . Both DeBussy trained men . Udgir in 1760 marked the first time that the Marathas put up a co ordinated cavalry - artillery attack on the Nizam . The genius of Balwantrao Mehendale ensured a crushing defeat for the Nizam . Sadly , the Marathas never found the time to perfect this new method . Which is why the Panipat disaster is often blamed on the lack of artillery - cavalry co ordination .

     
Post Panipat , Madhavrao I went about trying to rebuild the Maratha confederacy . He paid special attention to guns and cannons . A factory for making cannon balls was established at Ambegaon near Otur ( Junnar ) as a also a workshop for producing cannons was set up at Pune in 1769 . The cannon balls were 7 to 20 sher ( 1 sher = 1.25 kg ) . The cannons had colourful names like  Jaywanti , Jwalabhavani etc . They played a part in Madhavrao's victory over Haider Ali at Seringapatnam .
   But , even then , Maratha artillery still lacked both in quality and quantity . Most of the cannon balls were wrought , not cast . The sizes of neither the cannon balls nor the bore of the cannon was standardised . One can one imagine the time and effort spent in creating such custom made artillery . Cannon balls had to be hammered into shape before being put into a cannon . This was damaging to the cannon too , as smooth bore cannons lasted longer . Many cannons burst while being created  , killing the workers around them . As a result , even Madhavrao was forced to buy cannon balls from the British . The Brits , shrewd as they were , never supplied the requisite quantity ! Infact they only supplied only 10 % of what was asked for . By this time , their star was on the ascent in India , and they did not want to give their  ' enemy ' the sinews of war .
Another issue was the carriages used . They were large , cumbersome and many times overloaded with other things . As a result , a Maratha gun took more than half an hour to get ready for battle ! . Many carriages broke en route . And they never got around to using horses . Maratha guns were always drawn by a huge number of bullocks .
       The death of  Peshwa Madhavrao in 1772 was a huge blow to the Marathas . Among other things , it greatly affected the artillery division too .
      To the north however , Mahadji Scindia had started making rapid strides in this direction . A certain Count Benoit  DeBoigne was put in charge of the artillery . A division of 10,000 musketeers was also raised . From the late 1780s , Maratha artillery started having a telling effect on the neighbouring Rajput states . Jaipur  , Alwar , Chittor , Ajmer  etc quickly toppled . The nominal hold which Nanasaheb had over the Rajputs was further cemented by Mahadji . The Battle of Patan is a telling example of this . Sadly , Mahadji died in 1794 , leaving his job unfinished . Five years later , Nana Phadnavis passed away at Pune , bringing to an end the Nana - Mahadji combine . Sawai Madhavrao too died in the meantime . Their successors , Daulatrao Scindia and Bajirao - II were not a patch on these stalwarts . The British , with their far superior artillery , annexed whatever was left of the Marathas in 1818 .

CH 1 - A NEW PESHWA . ( excerpt )

The  mountains  rose  out  of  the  surrounding  plains,  strong,  tall   massifs. The  table-top  land bore  a  straw  coloured  look, save for  the  green  shrubbery at the base of the hills. The merciless summers had taken their toll, rendering the landscape nearly barren and bare. Grass which had grown plentiful on the steep slopes in the monsoons and winters, now succumbed to the harsh sun. The  sturdy grass rose up the slopes of the hills, ending in vertical walls of stone, too steep for even the grass and soil to conquer. Here, the black  basalt  heart  of the mountains stood out, almost like a natural, impregnable wall. The sun beat down on the hills, a bright yellow ball of light in a cloudless and endless blue sky.  An eagle screeched overhead, far above, no doubt looking for its nest in one of the hills.
Chhatrapati Shahu rested his hand against one of the many crenellations of the fort wall. The fort of Satara was Shahu’s home and capital of the Hindavi Swarajya. Shahu thoughtfully peered long and hard into the distance. He could see the hill of Yeoteshwar. The swallow tailed saffron standard fluttered proudly over it, as it did on many others, throughout the land.
The Chhatrapati though, was in a pensive  mood, with worry  written all over his dark, suntanned  face. The death of his Peshwa, Bajirao, had come as a great shock to him. He who had not lost a single battle had succumbed to the vagaries of nature. The middle aged Shahu let out a deep breath, reminiscing of past events.Who could replace his Peshwa, Bajirao? he wondered. Was that even possible?  He looked heavenward as as if  seeking an answer. But even he knew the answers would have to be found by him and his ministers alone. He had called the various Maratha chieftains to his court, to hammer out a solution. He had in fact, a young boy in mind for the coveted job, but still believed it necessary to seek the opinion of the other Maratha chieftains. Shahu could ill afford falling out with someone like Raghuji Bhosale or Malharrao Holkar; protégés of Bajirao. They had started trooping in, one by one, or had at least sent representatives from the far flung places the Marathas had managed to conquer over the course of twenty years. From the corner of his eye, Shahu suddenly sensed some movement.Turning to look, he could see that  a horseman clad in pure white  had almost reached the fort.Shahu smiled, for the newcomer was none other than Chimaji Appa, the brother of the deceased Bajirao, and an important Maratha courtier. Shahu watched him make  his way slowly up the broad staircase which wound its way to the top of the hill, ending in a massive and imposing darwaja made of the black and sturdy stones of the Sahyadris . His spotless white clothing gleamed in the bright sunlight. A red pagdi, typical of  Brahmin courtiers, with a large plume of velvet adorned his head. A necklace of large pearls around his neck, symbolic of his royalty. On the upper part of his right ear, was a small ring of gold, with a couple of small pearls strung through it. The bhikbali, for that is what the unique earring was called, was synonymous with his high standing at the court.Shahu hurried away from the fort wall, and towards the darwaja, to receive him. 
“Welcome Chimaji” said Shahu with a broad smile on his face, even as he personally stepped out of the tall, grand gate of the fort at Satara to receive him. Chimaji got off his horse, happy to see Shahu . An attendant quickly rushed forward and took the horse away to the stables , even as Shahu approached Chimaji with a smile on his face. He spread his arms wide and warmly hugged Chimaji Appa, “Wish we could all meet under happier circumstances. Raghuji Bhosale, Holkar, Scindia, yourself, it is sad we have to meet on such an occasion,” said Shahu as they began walking towards the palace.
“It has been HIS will. We must accept it,” said Chimaji with a slight smile on his face, not betraying the slightest note of sadness, although Shahu knew, he must have been shattered by the news.The two of them walked in silence towards the durbar set in the grand building that was the seat of Maratha power . Chimaji was ushered into the court where the splendor of the rising Maratha empire was more than evident. The large hall had tall  arches  of  teakwood, exquisitely carved pillars and beautifully done, large windows, of the Deccani style. Expensive carpets with minute details covered the floor and huge , rich tapestries hung from the walls. At the corners of the hall, the walls had been cut into an octagonal shape, keeping in step with traditional Marathi architecture. The courtiers had already assembled, and bowed  in respect as Chimaji made his way to his place at the durbar, closer to the Chhatrapati.
 

Indian revival under the Marathas .

Indian history has followed a set pattern . Especially when it comes to military victories and defeats . In victory , the opponent lived to regroup , expand and retaliate and in defeat , native powers got wiped out in totality . Case in point Prithviraj Chauhan . Status quo inspite of resounding wins and utter obsolescence in defeat . The way we treated our gains after the war in 1971 harks back to this self defeating doctrine . We had Pakistan on the mat and could have gotten anything in return and settled the issue once and for all . All we did was sign some Shimla agreement . Today we are faced with nuclear war .

The Marathas , from Chhatrapati Shivaji onwards , provided a new and fresh outlook in this regard . For the first time in centuries invading armies got a taste of their own medicine . Nocturnal raids , loot , politics and annexation of enemy territory were unheard of as far as Hindu kings were concerned . Shivaji Maharaj lighted the flame of revival , for the first time in many years ( the last Hindu kingdom , Vijayanagar , had been finished in 1565 ) there was an indigenous kingdom on the horizon . But more important is the way the Marathas conducted themselves after his death and after the long drawn war with the Mughals . It would have been easy for them to stay holed up in the Sahyadris , guarding their borders and invading the heartland every now and then for some easy loot . That would have been in tune with much of the nations's history . Vestiges of the Mughals would have thrived all over the country , and would have continued till kingdom come . But Shahu , Bajirao and others recognised the threat they posed . The majority of the battles fought by the Marathas were against blokes of this type -- the nizam , Aliverdy khan , nawabs of the south , mughal outposts in Malwa and Gujarat , Afghans in Punjab and elsewhere ... topped with ofcourse Panipat . In the course of all this , battles were won , territories regularly annexed and some kingdoms banished to oblivion for eg Cuddapah and Ahmedabad .